The use of proxies in warfare is typically understood as a state sponsor’s reliance on military surrogates that are outside the purview of the state’s conventional armed or security forces, and that offer services to their benefactors in exchange for tangible material support. A long-standing feature in the history of armed conflict , the reliance on surrogates has become particularly endemic in the post–World War II era, with important implications for international security. Following the attacks of September 11, 2001, and the ensuing “global war on terror,” the use of…
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THE KEY ROLE OF STAKEHOLDERS AND EXPERTS IN SPACE AND GOVERNANCE
Institutional design includes constitutional-level rules that specify the participants, how authority is distributed, and how rules can be made, or what Hart would call “secondary rules.” Central to polycentric governance is users’ self-organization or self-governance, i.e., that users organize themselves to address shared problems and interests. In self-governance, the users of the Common pool Resources (CPRs) (e.g., fishermen fishing from the same lake, farmers using the same water basin) themselves establish, modify, and possibly enforce the rules regulating the use and protection of a common resource. As Elinor Ostrom noted,…
Read MoreDIGITAL CYBER REVOLUTION: AUTHORITARIANISM, CYBER SOVEREIGNTY AND REASSERTION OF STATE CONTROL
International law has generally recognized that, “ sovereignty is perhaps the most fundamental [principle]. From [which] emerges, inter alia, notions of non-intervention; prescriptive, enforcement, and adjudicative jurisdiction; sovereign immunity; due diligence; and territorial integrity.” A sovereign state thus maintains the right “to conduct its affairs without outside interference. Between independent states , respect for territorial sovereignty is an essential foundation of international relations.” Extending this principal of independent sovereign control to the ephemeral territory of cyber space, Russia and China have actively advocated for cyber sovereignty—“the idea that states should…
Read MoreTHE AGE OF NEW WARS: THE USE OF CHILD SOLDIERS IN ARMED CONFLICTS
In history & current warring parties, political scientists counted a large number of wars and armed conflicts worldwide, almost all of them in developed countries &developing countries. Observers of these current ‘New wars’ or ‘complex political emergencies’ have noted that the main target of the war parties is the civilian population, and systematic atrocities, massacres and bombings are often applied as rational strategies within current warfare. Some believe in witnessing a qualitative change in the way wars are waged and organized violence is exerted; in other words, a transformation in…
Read MorePRICE OF HUMAN LIFE: MEDICAL, LEGAL AND SOCIAL ASPECTS
The price of a human life has never been properly assessed, and a man as a value has neither been sufficiently learned nor protected. Though seeming illogical but, if the human life is under-evaluated, more extensively and lethally endangered, then it gives way to different approaches and methods to be developed in order to determine the man like a value (price) of material and social substance. Extensive research is being carried out in different countries on the value of a statistical life (VSL). Determination of material values of a human’s…
Read MoreINTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION: HISTORY ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE AND LEARNED LESSONS: PART II
The motives behind international collaboration on the International Space Station (ISS) highlight the advantages of cooperation. This was a political decision and a positive sign of USA interest in further human space exploration becoming a global undertaking. Each country deemed this field of science as worthy of pursuing as well as saw the potential for important technological development in industry. Cooperation on the ISS can be seen as a means of closing gaps between nations. This project serves USA foreign policy and enhances relations by working together on an enormous…
Read MoreINTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION: HISTORY ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE AND LERNED LESSONS: PART I
The idea of international cooperation regarding space exploration was not a new concept that came out of the 1970s détente era. NASA was created with this in mind. The National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958, which formed NASA had a clause that mandated this new space agency to engage in ―cooperation…with other nations and groups of nations. Early attempts at cooperation include U.S.-European collaboration with Spacelab, while Canada was commissioned to construct the Remote Manipulator System, or Canadarm, on the shuttle. Known as the ―handshake in space, the Apollo-Soyuz…
Read MoreMILITARY OBJECTIVES ENVIRONMENT: EXPLOITING THE LAWS GAPS AND THE IMPORTANCE OF LEGITIMACY: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
Strong states and weaker actors seek to use international law to further military objectives but in different ways. There are at least three major differences. First, strong states have more at stake in terms of using international law to legitimize their actions. Non-state actors often have alternative sources of legitimacy, and view legitimacy derived from international law as a state vulnerability that can be exploited. Second, strong states are better equipped to extract long-term advantages from international law. States tend to exploit more sophisticated legal areas such as financial regulations…
Read MoreADULT VACCINATION: AN OVERVIEW OF THE REGION OF AMERICAS, THE WESTERN PACIFIC AND AFRICA: PART I
The emergence of new pathogens and the re-emergence of old ones has made life course immunization an urgent priority, especially in view of rapidly ageing populations. After the coronavirus pandemic, a life cycle approach to vaccinations for all ages and against all vaccine-preventable diseases has emerged as the main strategy to reduce unnecessary hospitalizations, control infectious disease outbreaks and build herd immunity against common infections. The Region of the Americas adopted the Expanded Program on Immunization (EPI) in 1974. The long-term commitment to pediatric immunization has made this region a…
Read MoreLAND USE: REGULATORY ASPECTS, PRACTICES AND FACTORS HAVING ADVERSE EFFECT, POLICIES METODS AND OTHER TOOLS TO PRESERVE LAND RESOURCES AND INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION ON SUSTAINABLE LAND USE
The land use are subject to human intervention and include a full range of management practices, through agriculture, urban sprawl, tourism or by changing the forms of use of rural areas etc… The magnitude of this artificial land in countries under strong natural constraint raises questions about the social value of land, and on the modes of public regulation that would protect them more effectively against human intervention. The majority of countries have adopted policies for improved land management. Others countries have implemented land use practices, this takes many forms…
Read MoreRACE IN SPACE: TOWARD COOPERATION OR COMPETITION?
Over the past sixty-four years, the world has progressed from the first man in space to landing on the moon, to permanent human presence on manned space stations. Mankind is now poised to explore even further. As the Augustine Commission wrote, ―The human exploration of space is historically intertwined with the recent evolution of America‘s international relationships.” Because of this global dimension, the competition of the 1960s space race and the cooperation on the International Space Station (ISS) were analyzed for lessons for the future. According to Launius, “Mirror image…
Read MoreA FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING THE IMPACTS OF ILLEGAL AGRO-CONVERSION AND NATIONAL OBJECTIVES FOR FOREST AND LAND AND TYPOLOGY OF ILLEGALITIES
Governments establish a legislative framework – policies, laws, and regulations – in order to best manage their resources. This framework should be developed to incorporate “good governance” principles, including: participatory and equitable policies and laws; transparent and efficient processes, reinforced by monitoring and evaluation; effective implementation that achieves policy objectives, including through enforcement where necessary; and accountability, including anti‐fraud and anti‐corruption mechanisms; all underlain by the application of the rule of law. A country’s legislative framework should advance four primary and legitimate objectives of the state with respect to its…
Read MoreCHALLENGES TO YOUTH ENGAGEMENT: PREJUDICE, MYTH, AND REALITY
When young people are engaged in community decisions that affect them, better decisions are made and everyone benefits. When communities involve youth in ways that are meaningful, they tap new energy, knowledge and leadership. And yet, too often, young people do not participate in civic activities-especially the traditional, public decision making process of governments. There are many prejudices regarding the interests and capacity of youth. These beliefs contribute to feelings of alienation and disempowerment, predispose youth engagement efforts to failure, and can lead directly to individual harm. Individuals are hurt…
Read MoreMONUMENTAL TRIUMPH AND OUTCOMES FROM THE CLIMATE CHANGE REGIME
The adoption of the 2015 Paris Agreement has been widely celebrated as a ‘monumental triumph’ (UN News 2015). It enshrines a ‘new logic’ of global cooperation, representing a decisive shift away from the top-down regulatory approach that had previously underpinned the international climate change regime. This shift can best be understood in light of the historical evolution of the legal and institutional framework for global collaborative climate action. This policy brief provides a comprehensive overview of the development of the global climate change regime. It documents how climate change –initially…
Read MoreTHE NEW EMPIRICISM IN HUMAN RIGHTS: INSIGHTS AND IMPLICATIONS(75TH ANNIVERSARY OF UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS: SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR)
Seventy five years ago, the nations of the world came together to make a revolutionary pledge: Together, they would work to promote “universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms.” Although significant progress has been made toward this goal in the Seventy five years since the world remains rife with human rights abuses and it’s continuing? and in some parts of the world worsening? reality of human rights violations raises a difficult question for advocates and students of international law: Can international human rights law be used…
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