The use of proxies in warfare is typically understood as a state sponsor’s reliance on military surrogates that are outside the purview of the state’s conventional armed or security forces, and that offer services to their benefactors in exchange for tangible material support. A long-standing feature in the history of armed conflict , the reliance on surrogates has become particularly endemic in the post–World War II era, with important implications for international security. Following the attacks of September 11, 2001, and the ensuing “global war on terror,” the use of…
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THE KEY ROLE OF STAKEHOLDERS AND EXPERTS IN SPACE AND GOVERNANCE
Institutional design includes constitutional-level rules that specify the participants, how authority is distributed, and how rules can be made, or what Hart would call “secondary rules.” Central to polycentric governance is users’ self-organization or self-governance, i.e., that users organize themselves to address shared problems and interests. In self-governance, the users of the Common pool Resources (CPRs) (e.g., fishermen fishing from the same lake, farmers using the same water basin) themselves establish, modify, and possibly enforce the rules regulating the use and protection of a common resource. As Elinor Ostrom noted,…
Read MoreDIGITAL CYBER REVOLUTION: AUTHORITARIANISM, CYBER SOVEREIGNTY AND REASSERTION OF STATE CONTROL
International law has generally recognized that, “ sovereignty is perhaps the most fundamental [principle]. From [which] emerges, inter alia, notions of non-intervention; prescriptive, enforcement, and adjudicative jurisdiction; sovereign immunity; due diligence; and territorial integrity.” A sovereign state thus maintains the right “to conduct its affairs without outside interference. Between independent states , respect for territorial sovereignty is an essential foundation of international relations.” Extending this principal of independent sovereign control to the ephemeral territory of cyber space, Russia and China have actively advocated for cyber sovereignty—“the idea that states should…
Read MoreLEVERS TO IMPROVE INDOOR AIR QUALITY: BEST PUBLIC POLICIES/ PRACTICES AND INNOVATIVE INITIATIVES
A crucial lever is improving access to clean energy for Three billion people. Getting renewable energy on small local distribution grids will help people phase out fossil and polluting fuels. The Climate and Clean Air Coalition(CCAC) has worked with development banks and micro-finance institutions to develop programs to support impoverished communities and enable them to get access to renewable energy. One example is XacBank, in Mongolia. In this country, the smoke from coal and wood burning is a major contributor to black carbon and Particulate Matter (PM) 2.5 air pollution,…
Read MoreTHE AGE OF NEW WARS: THE USE OF CHILD SOLDIERS IN ARMED CONFLICTS
In history & current warring parties, political scientists counted a large number of wars and armed conflicts worldwide, almost all of them in developed countries &developing countries. Observers of these current ‘New wars’ or ‘complex political emergencies’ have noted that the main target of the war parties is the civilian population, and systematic atrocities, massacres and bombings are often applied as rational strategies within current warfare. Some believe in witnessing a qualitative change in the way wars are waged and organized violence is exerted; in other words, a transformation in…
Read MorePRICE OF HUMAN LIFE: MEDICAL, LEGAL AND SOCIAL ASPECTS
The price of a human life has never been properly assessed, and a man as a value has neither been sufficiently learned nor protected. Though seeming illogical but, if the human life is under-evaluated, more extensively and lethally endangered, then it gives way to different approaches and methods to be developed in order to determine the man like a value (price) of material and social substance. Extensive research is being carried out in different countries on the value of a statistical life (VSL). Determination of material values of a human’s…
Read MoreARE HUMAN RESPONSIBLE FOR GLOBAL WARMING?: THE SCIENTIFIC UNDERSTANDING OF CLIMATE CHANGE
The case for attributing the recent global warming to human activities rests on the following undisputed scientific facts: Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a greenhouse gas that warms the atmosphere. Since pre-industrial times, atmospheric CO2 concentrations have increased from about 280 parts per million (ppm) to over 380 ppm. Current concentrations of CO2 and other greenhouse gases are unprecedented in at least the last 650,000 years, based on records from gas bubbles trapped in polar ice. Independent measurements demonstrate that the increased CO2 in the atmosphere comes from burning fossil fuels…
Read MoreADULT VACCINATION: AN OVERVIEW OF THE EUROPE, EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN AND SOUTH EAST ASIA : PART II
The increase of life expectancy in Europe renders older people an important proportion of the general population and healthy aging is being increasingly incorporated into modern healthcare systems. In 2019 persons ≥65 years old accounted for approximately 20% of the European population, and this is expected to increase to approximately 30% by 2050. The region has had a comprehensive adult immunization schedule, which is likely related to lesser vaccine hesitancy as well as larger acceptance for adult immunization. A 2019 analysis of vaccination policies for adults in 42 European countries…
Read MoreINTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION: HISTORY ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE AND LEARNED LESSONS: PART II
The motives behind international collaboration on the International Space Station (ISS) highlight the advantages of cooperation. This was a political decision and a positive sign of USA interest in further human space exploration becoming a global undertaking. Each country deemed this field of science as worthy of pursuing as well as saw the potential for important technological development in industry. Cooperation on the ISS can be seen as a means of closing gaps between nations. This project serves USA foreign policy and enhances relations by working together on an enormous…
Read MoreINTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION: HISTORY ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE AND LERNED LESSONS: PART I
The idea of international cooperation regarding space exploration was not a new concept that came out of the 1970s détente era. NASA was created with this in mind. The National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958, which formed NASA had a clause that mandated this new space agency to engage in ―cooperation…with other nations and groups of nations. Early attempts at cooperation include U.S.-European collaboration with Spacelab, while Canada was commissioned to construct the Remote Manipulator System, or Canadarm, on the shuttle. Known as the ―handshake in space, the Apollo-Soyuz…
Read MoreMILITARY OBJECTIVES ENVIRONMENT: EXPLOITING THE LAWS GAPS AND THE IMPORTANCE OF LEGITIMACY: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
Strong states and weaker actors seek to use international law to further military objectives but in different ways. There are at least three major differences. First, strong states have more at stake in terms of using international law to legitimize their actions. Non-state actors often have alternative sources of legitimacy, and view legitimacy derived from international law as a state vulnerability that can be exploited. Second, strong states are better equipped to extract long-term advantages from international law. States tend to exploit more sophisticated legal areas such as financial regulations…
Read MoreADULT VACCINATION: AN OVERVIEW OF THE REGION OF AMERICAS, THE WESTERN PACIFIC AND AFRICA: PART I
The emergence of new pathogens and the re-emergence of old ones has made life course immunization an urgent priority, especially in view of rapidly ageing populations. After the coronavirus pandemic, a life cycle approach to vaccinations for all ages and against all vaccine-preventable diseases has emerged as the main strategy to reduce unnecessary hospitalizations, control infectious disease outbreaks and build herd immunity against common infections. The Region of the Americas adopted the Expanded Program on Immunization (EPI) in 1974. The long-term commitment to pediatric immunization has made this region a…
Read MorePRIORITY NEEDS OF CHILDREN IN GAZA OVERVIEW OF CONSTRAINED FOOD SECURITY AND HUMANITARIAN AID
Mental health and psychosocial support (MHPSS) needs among children in Gaza are high. Since 7th October 2023, most of the children in the Gaza Strip have been through traumatic events, including grief, widespread destruction, forced displacement, and severe shortages of food, water, and medicine. The absence of safe spaces and playgrounds and the closure of schools are also factors that cause mental health and psychosocial issues among children. They are reported to be suffering from anxiety, fear, emotional withdrawal, and nightmares. Israel has bombed Gaza’s only psychiatric hospital, and air…
Read MoreLAND USE: REGULATORY ASPECTS, PRACTICES AND FACTORS HAVING ADVERSE EFFECT, POLICIES METODS AND OTHER TOOLS TO PRESERVE LAND RESOURCES AND INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION ON SUSTAINABLE LAND USE
The land use are subject to human intervention and include a full range of management practices, through agriculture, urban sprawl, tourism or by changing the forms of use of rural areas etc… The magnitude of this artificial land in countries under strong natural constraint raises questions about the social value of land, and on the modes of public regulation that would protect them more effectively against human intervention. The majority of countries have adopted policies for improved land management. Others countries have implemented land use practices, this takes many forms…
Read MoreRACE IN SPACE: TOWARD COOPERATION OR COMPETITION?
Over the past sixty-four years, the world has progressed from the first man in space to landing on the moon, to permanent human presence on manned space stations. Mankind is now poised to explore even further. As the Augustine Commission wrote, ―The human exploration of space is historically intertwined with the recent evolution of America‘s international relationships.” Because of this global dimension, the competition of the 1960s space race and the cooperation on the International Space Station (ISS) were analyzed for lessons for the future. According to Launius, “Mirror image…
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